Sugih Manek Charter (837 Śaka, 915-09-13)

A1. The stanza in āryā meter which stands at the beginning of this inscription, just before the Old Javanese content, is found in only one other inscription that also comes from the vicinity of Malang, the Minto stone or Sangguran charter, that was issued under the reign of King Wawa. This noteworthy co-occurrence has been highlighted by Kern (1915).

Kern 1915: 223–24.

A5. It is surprising to have a sentence structure where a favor (anugraha) is followed by a verb form (sumusuk)without irrealis. For this reason, one might wonder as to the subject of sumusuk. Who did demarcate the land? Is it the King himself? Or should we assume that the demarcator would be the grantee, i.e. dyah Mumpung, despite the absence of an irrealis form? For this moment, we tentatively stick to the common pattern, whereby the King does not demarcate the land himself.

A6. The term gavai is registered in OJED to denote the following meanings: “work, task, occupation; work, product; feast, celebration; use, purpose”. Yet here we opt for the translation “corvée” to specify something that should be rendered by a village to the higher authorities. The same technical term also appears several times in other corpora (Balitung, Wawa, Sindok) and elsewhere in the present one. Cf. Samalagi (1v3): gavainya mā 1 savahnya lamvi[t], Panggumulan I (1v3): gavai mā 4 savah kanayakān· tampah 7, Dalinan (1r4): gavai mā 6 sava(ḥ) [ka]hadyanan· tampah 8, Kinewu (line 6): lamvit· 6 tampaḥ 3 kaṭik 28 gavai 8, Hujung Galuh (1r4): gavai ku 2 dravya-hajinya mas· su 6 mas· kavahutān· su 2, Sugih Manek (A6): vanva I limus· vatək kanuruhan· gavai mā 1, Sangguran (A6): va(nu)A I saṁguran· vatək· vaharu‚ gavai ma 2….han, Cunggrang II (1r4): vatək· bavaṁ Ataganiṁ vahuta vuṅkal·, gavai ku 2, Linggasuntan (A5): vatak hujuṁ gavay mā 2 kaṭik 2. More discussion on this matter is provided in Barrett Jones (1984: 132–135), where it is shown that gavai had technical meanings in at least three different contexts. First, it could designate a measurement of resources on which tax is levied. Second, it might be a kind of tax. In rather different contexts, gavai can furthermore denote an offering or ritual performed for a deity (Barrett Jones 1984: 134).

A6. The expression anaknya in connexion to a village (vanua) also figures in Poh (1v2–3): kumonnakan· Ikanaṁ vanuA I poḥ muAṁṅ anaknya vanuA ri rumasan·, riṁ nyū, kapva vatak· kinivaṁ, śuśukan· paṅguhanya mamulus· mas· su 4 tan ya vadvāyun· and in Kandangan (1r5–6) tatkālanikanaṁ vanuA I kaṇḍaṅan· muAṁ Anaknya ri vanuA I Er hijo vata⟨k·⟩ vuṅkal· tpat· śīmāni parhyaṅan. Under the entry anak in OJED, none of the indicated meanings seems to be suitable in these contexts. Clearly it cannot be rendered as equivalent to anak vanua, meaning “native(s)” or “inhabitant(s)”, since the sentences seem to consist exclusively in series of toponyms. However, the idea of anak as expressing something dependent or derivative is observable from other entries in OJED. The compound term gunuṅ anak means “small mountain”, anakniṅ sañjata means “missile or arrow”, anak-anakan signifies “pupil” and paṅanak “profit on a loan” or “interest” — which in the late twelfth century is replaced by a Sanskrit word putra (Wisseman Christie 2009: 52). Based on those instances, we are inclined to interpret vanua X muaṅ anaknya vanua Y as expressing village Y’s dependency on village X. It could mean a subordinate village or land holdings belonging to the main vanua.

A6. Here paṅguhan tapak is tentatively rendered as income or profit from land measured in tapak. Cf.Linggasuntan (A5): vatak hujuṅ gavay mā 2 kaṭik 2 paṅguhan tapak mas su 3. However, we are quite aware that in Balinese epigraphy context, a term called patapak appears as a certain tax or levy. Cf. copperplate inscriptions of Pura Batur Buleleng (IIb.4): tan kna papanjut mvaṅ patapak of Pura Kehen (IIIb.1): tan kna patapak sandūṅ bənta pamor, of Pura Pamrajan Raja Purana Klungkung (Ib.6): lawan tan kna patapak, (IIa.5): atəhər tan kna patapak sanduṅ bənta. According to Barrett Jones, due to the fact that a sum of money follows this term, it may refer to the tax paid (Barrett Jones 1984: 144).

A7. The toponym Sugih Manek exclusively figures in this charter. As for the name of the foundation, dharma rakryān prāsāda kabikvan I sugih manek, we understand it as the foundation of the Lord in form of a monastery temple, at Sugih Manek.

A13. The term mapayuṅan, whose meaning is not evident,is rarely found in other instances of this list. However, one other instance is in another inscription found in Malang, viz. Linggasuntan (A13): ... vli pañjut·, palamak·, pakaluṁkuṁ, Urutan·, dampulan·, tpuṁ kavuṁ, suṁsuṁ paṅuraṁ, pasuk alas·, mapayuṅan·, sipat vilut·.

A15. The understudied term miśra is said to come from the Sanskrit which means “interest” or “interest on interest” by Kern (1917: 47). He linked it to the Javanese terms “misra, mingsra, misri”, meaning profit and suggested that it might be understood as “usurer”. Stutterheim (1925: 247), for his part, considered miśra to mean something like “chief”, as in other contexts figure combinations such as miśra hino and miśra aṅinaṅin. Wisseman Christie (1993: 203) took it as a category comprising semi-professional, part-time producers who belonged to farming households. As for Boechari (2012: 166), he chose to understand miśra as a term which categorizes the home industries. Nevertheless, further study to elucidate this word is still needed.

A18. The expression raḥ kasavur found in the sukha-duhkha list is sometimes followed with riṁ havan (Pamotan A10), iṁ natar (Gandhakuti 3r5, Adulengen 4r3, Baru e1, Waharu IV 4v1), and iṁ dalan (Jeru-jeru A14, Demak A27, Paradah I A24, Hering C24, Anjuk Ladang A23, Alasantan 1r15, Muncang A24, Kaladi 2v6, Kusambyan B17, Cane C10, Munggut B15, Pandaan B14), to express the meaning “blood spattered on the road/yard”. In this list, raḥ kasavur stands alone and in several Sindok inscriptions coming from the Malang area, it is also followed by nothing. Cf. Turyan A16 and Cunggrang I A21. The fact that what comes after raḥ kasavur is varied and sometimes it is followed by nothing as well suggest that the reader was supposed mentally to imagine the phrases riṁ havan, iṁ natar and iṁ dalan to be there. In this case, it is presumed that the reader was expected to take this expression together with iṁ natar that precedes. Thus, no need to propose anything in this list nor think that the scribe was unintentionally skipping some elements.

A22. The word kacapuri was recently discussed by Jákl (2017: 20), who quoted a passage from the Bhomāntaka 27.7 (Teeuw and Robson 2005) that mentions together two Old Javanese words denoting glass, kaca and gəḍah. In this context, the word kaca merges with puri,making exactly the same word as the one we encounter here, kacapuri. Jákl points out that the translation offered by Teeuw and Robson, “glass palace”, differs from the one tentatively proposed by Zoetmulder (1982: 760), viz. “enclosed wall or fence”. Stutterheim (1925: 276), in his edition of Cunggrang II (tinulad), translates this word as “betel box makers” (beteldoosmakers), but with a question mark. The meaning of this word is still rather unclear, so we leave it untranslated.

The complete Dutch version: “Vgl. jav. kĕtjapoeri: pagĕr sadjroning beteng. Mal. hoofdgebouw (palais) doch tevens: kapiteel met versierselen en lofwerk, beteldoos; jav. tjĕpoeri = kĕtjapoeri en ook: onderste deel van een graf. K.I. van lopaklopak: gouden of zilveren sirihdoos van den vorst. Dit laatste zal wel gemeend zijn. Zie nog Groneman, Garĕbĕgs: 22, 82.”

A22. The tree called vuṅkuḍu, notably its root,is one of the important sources of red dyestuff in Java and most likely corresponds to the Mengkudu or Pace fruit (Morinda citrifolia L.). Until today, this plant is still actively used for manufacturing dye. A rich discussion on vuṅkuḍu in textile can be found in Wisseman Christie 1982 and 1993.

A22. In this kind of list, paḍat is often found to be placed after garam or uyah: cf. Ayam Teas III (1v2), Linggasuntan (A25), Alasantan (2r5). Sometimes, it also seems to have a connection with kapas: cf. Telang I (2r9) kapas paḍat. Therefore, when it stands alone, as in our text, it may refer to either salt (garam/vuyah) or cotton (kapas). Stutterheim (1925: 276) attempts to link this item to salt, particularly block salt, although he also states that no suitable meaning could be found. Not so far from Stutterheim’s proposition, Barrett Jones (1984: 51) identifies this item as a “lumps of salt”. Another possibility is to think of paḍat as a unique commodity, even though it is still rather obscure what kind of commodity might then be intended here.

A23. Wisseman Christie (1993: 188) discusses the term bsar as a specific term for silk in the context of Javanese markets. This indigenous term, however, only appears in inscriptions, while in the kakavin literature, the Sanskrit term sūtra is used more frequently. It is interesting to note that some Chinese accounts reported silk cloth being produced in Java (Wheatley 1959: 97–98, Hirth and Rockhill 1966: 78, Wong 1979: 8, Groeneveldt 1960:16).

A23. We choose to translate the word kalima in the expression kalima bantal as “all the five bundles”. Barrett Jones (1984: 38), however, translates this expression as “five pikul loads” and seems to see no problem in grammatical terms. So far, the discussion on how to take the prefix ka- is provided by Zoetmulder (1992: 97) in the section titled “Awalan ka- untuk katabilangan”. He indicates several meanings, i.e.: semua atau bersama-sama, and menyatakan tingkat. The word kalima is among the given examples. Here I quote directly the passage: makamantu saṅ Pāṇḍava kalima, meaning “Kelima Pandawa diambilnya menantu” in Indonesian or “He took the five Pandavas together as sons-in-law” in English. Apart from this grammatical problem, we never get further information of what the set of these five bantals consist of and this expression is still obscure to us. The same confusion has been brought up by Stutterheim (1925: 276). His comment is as follows: “No doubt also a certain unit along the lines of those mentioned in the livestock. We cannot guess its true nature. In the princely countries, besides the usual meanings, bantal is also understood to mean a kind of carrying yoke, such as that on which the tandu is carried (Announcement of Mr. Jayadipura, Jogja).”

The complete Dutch version: “Ongetwijfeld eveneens een bepaalde eenheid in den trant van die, welke bij de levende have zijn genoemd. Den waren aard ervan kunnen wij niet gissen. In de vorstenlanden wordt onder bantal, behalve de gewone beteekenissen, nog verstaan een soort draagjuk, zooals die, waarop de tandoe wordt gedragen (Mededeeling van den heer Djajadipoera, Djogja).”

A24. Our provisional investigation on the expression ndān· makmitana ya tulis· maṅkai lviranya shows that it also occurs in three other inscriptions coming from Malang region: Muncang (A40), Turyan (A21), Alasantan (2r6). Further inquiries are certainly needed to see whether this clause is a local specificity or not.

A27. Wisseman Christie translates maṁhapū as ‘lime burner’ (Wisseman Christie 1993: 186, 203, 208), instead of ‘lime maker’ that has been proposed by Zoetmulder. An explanation for that choice of translation might lie in the fact that to get the lime (called kapur tohor or gamping prongkal in Indonesian) one has to burn the unrefined lime (CaCO3) first. The lime works for locking the natural color applied onto the cloth.

A29. The word gritan, thatis not listed particularly in OJED under the entry grit or gərit, figures frequently elsewhere in Airlangga corpus. Cf. Cane (Cd17), Sima Anglayang charter (13r1, 13r6, 13v1, 13v4, 13v7, 14r4, 14r7, 14v3, 14v5), Anjatan (3r10) and Bularut (C3). Wisseman Christie (1998: 376–78) has proposed to render it as ‘vehicle’ or ‘cart’. This idea has been taken up by Titi Surti Nastiti, Eko Bastiawan and Arlo Griffiths (forthcoming), with some further comments. They notice that in the Sima Anglayang charter, gritan seems to be used as a synonym of word giliṅan, signifying ‘wagon, carriage, cart’. They also argue that since grit means ‘a creaking, grinding or squeaking sound’, it is quite plausible that a term designating a ‘(squeaking) cart’ could have been derived from it.

B1. The toponym tagaran is found several times in the Sima Anglayang charter, a reissued document from Majapahit-period originally produced during Airlangga’s reign. However, it raises a question because several authentic charters, i.e. Linggasuntan, Jeru-jeru, Muncang and Turyan (all from the Sindok period and having Malang as their provenance), mention a toponym Tugaran, instead of Tagaran, and even the Sima Anglayang charter also includes cases of tugaran. Titi Surti Nastiti, Eko Bastiawan and Arlo Griffiths (forthcoming) comment as follows: “It seems possible that this toponym Tugaran was an equivalent of the name Tagaran found several times further on in this charter. Compare especially the association of Tagaran with Vaharu, Hujuṅ and Kanuruhan in 8v5 and 16v2, while the Sangguran charter (B9–10) lists patih I kanuruhan, patih I hujuṅ, patih vaharu and patih I tugaran in one sentence”. The textual evidence might lead us to think that Tagaran is another spelling of the intended one, Tugaran, but given the fact that as early in 837 Saka, Sugih Manek already attests the toponym Tagaran, the evidence seems to point toward another possibility, viz. that Tugaran and Tagaran were used interchangeably in the 10th and 11th centuries.

B6. We opt to translate sthavira as a senior in the court, and not a (Buddhist) elder as Zoetmulder states in OJED, because in some other passages that apparently are not yet included there, this term is rather used in a general sense (i.e unpublished Purvadhigama text, 1v3) than exclusively in Buddhist context.

B6. The function of maṅhambən, that also figures in B10 and B11 is still unknown to us. Zoetmulder, however, put this word under the entry hambən which he translates as “to bind (with a girdle)” or “bind up”. In other corpora we tend to find it is written as maṅhambin, cf. in the Balitung corpus: Kubu-kubu (1v4, 3r3); in the Sindok corpus: Muncang (B31, B37), Turyan (A31, A42), Jeru-jeru (B11, B13, B21) and Kanuruhan (B12).

B6. patih kavaṅyan, saṅ pāṛtha also figures in an inscription coming from Sindok period, cf. Kanuruhan (11): momah-umaḥ saṁ kavaṅyan· pārtha

B7. The function juru bvatoḥ — elsewhere in this corpus, spelled as juru botoḥ (Piling-piling II B10) — is presumed to be related with gambling activities, as this term is found under the word toh in OJED, meaning stake, gambling, wager, competition, combat.

B10. The same functions and names are found in Jeru-jeru (B11): patiḥ pamgat saṁ jarā, maṅhambin saṁ balusyak·.

B16. In Zoetmulder (1982), there is no entry parabantĕn under the word bantĕn. Here, our translation of parabantən relies on the definition given in Hardjadibrata (Hardjadibrata 2003: 598) — parawanten: offerings (mainly) consisting of food. Along with this kind of offering, four other items also get mentioned, namely kamvaṅ (flowers), dhūpa (incense), dīpa (lamp) and akṣata (unhusked grains). They might constitute the five items for worship (pañcopacāra). In Lintakan (3r16), another list of pañcopacāra is given, with a slightly different elements, namely gləpuṅ putiḥ kuniṅ (white and yellow powder), kamvaṅ gandha (fragrant flowers), dhūpa (incense), dipa (lamp) and jnu (boreh).

B19. This land measurement unit, tapak, seems to be used commonly in East Javanese inscriptions and during a limited period of time (10th century). It is found in Dinoyo II (A2–3): saṁ (hi)vi(l)· (r)i hujuṁ manu(suk·) sīma vatak· hiliran ri ḍaṁ hyaṁ guru caṇḍik· savaḥ tapa(k· sapuluḥ mas·), (A8): mavaih savaḥ susukkan· tapak· salapan·, Kubu-kubu (1v3–4): manampil· talaṁ rvaṅ tapak· I samuḍuṁ tka ri kubu-kubu pataṁ tapak·, Gulung-gulung (A3–4): savah I guluṅ-guluṁ tapak su 7, Jeru-jeru (A3): tapak mā su 3 paknanya dharmmakṣetra, Demak (A19): aśuji tapak ku 2. Barrett Jones already integrated this term under the chapter “Land Measurements and Prices” and pointed out the literal meaning of tapak or tampak as a “tread” or “trace” or “print”, but she did not give further analysis on it (Barrett Jones 1984: 144). To us, it might similarly operate like the other measurement unit, i.e. hasta (literal meaning: hand) and the modern unit “feet”, where the name of the unit is inspired by the something related to the human body. The only puzzle left is to understand how this land measurement unit is converted or valued with other measurement unit related to monetary system. As has been addressed by Barrett Jones, the phrasing of this measurement unit is quite odd, because it is sometimes followed by another measurement unit.

B20. Atamān might refer to a person in charge of a park (taman). This word occurs in another form: matāman in Humanding (1v3), which also stands right after variga: si sḍək·, variga 2 si maddhya, si plī, matamān· si manū, mapkan· si kavit·, makajar· si vji, tuhālas· si kuḍu, hulu vras· 2. The same thought is uttered by Boechari (2012: 189): “Matamān tentunya berurusan dengan pertamanan.”

B22 We tried to understand the expression sakaparipūrṇnākna bhaṭāra as “for complete perfecting of the Deity”, even though it still somehow does not satisfy us. Who is the bhaṭāra? And what is He doing? Boechari in his posthumous publication alludes briefly the same thought, although he was thinking on translating bhaṭāra explicitly as the deified spirit, “Di sini kami mengalami kesulitan dalam menafsirkan ungkapan sakaparipūrṇnākna bhaṭāra. Kalau bhaṭāra di sini harus diartikan ‘arwah yang telah diperdewakan’, maka apa maksud ungkapan ‘segala sesuatu untuk penyempurnaan’ arwah itu? Apakah ini menunjukkan adanya beberapa tahap dalam upacara pelepasan arwah dari keduniaan ini, sampai ia sempurna bersatu dengan dewanya?” (Boechari 2012: 278, n. 7)

c14. The word davuhan in this imprecation list is translated as “reservoir” instead of “dam” because it makes more sense to have people drown into a reservoir rather than a dam which is a concrete wall designed to control the water flow. Van der Meer in her book Sawah Cultivation in Ancient Java also translates this term as reservoir, diversion dam or other means of water conservation on a large scale (van der Meer 1979: 22).